• So. Appalachian
  • The Landscape
    • The Physical Landscape
    • The Biological Landscape
    • The Cultural Landscape
  • Resource Management
    • Timber
      • Acorn Maturity Indices
      • The Timber Industry
        • Public Forests
        • Timber Supply in the Southern Appalachians
        • Timber Demand in the Southern Applachians
        • Nonindustrial Private Forests
      • Managing the Timber Resource: An Overview
      • Silvics of Major Species
        • Silvics of Hardwood species
        • Silvics of Softwood Species
      • Silviculture of Oak Stands
        • Importance of Oaks
        • Oak Silvics/Ecology
          • Knowledge Gaps in the Eco-Physiology of Oak Regeneration
          • Regeneration Strategies of Oaks
            • Three Forms of Oak Reproduction
            • Oak Regeneration Strategies in Xeric Ecosystems
            • Oak Regeneration Strategies in Mesic Ecosystems
            • Oak Regeneration Strategy in Hydric Ecosystems
            • Definitions of Regeneration Terms
          • Oak Reproduction Biology
            • Acorn Germination
            • Effects of Crown Position on Acorn Production
            • Effects of Tree Age/Size on Acorn Production
            • Relationship Between Flower Crop Size and Acorn Crop Size
            • Acorn Dispersal Mechanisms
            • Flowering
            • Oak Staminate Flower Development
            • Oak Pistillate Flower Development
            • Oak Pollination and Fertilization
            • Embryogenesis
            • Factors Affecting Oak Flowering
            • Genetically Determined Inherent Capacity for Acorn Production
            • Effects of Weather on Acorn Production
          • Juvenile Growth: Physiological Perspective
            • Leaf Development and Morphology
            • Carbon Fixation
            • Carbon Distribution
            • Carbon Partitioning
            • Stem and Leaf Growth
              • Defining Determinate, Semi-Determinate, and Indeterminate Growth Habits
            • Shoot-Root Interaction
              • Shoot Dieback
          • Juvenile Growth
            • Survival and First Year Growth
            • Growth Influenced by Light
            • Response of Seedlings to Release
            • Sprout/Coppice Response
          • Threats to Oak Forest Health
            • Acorn Predation by Insects
            • Acorn Predation by Wildlife
            • Nursery Root Diseases
            • Oak Decline
            • Gypsy Moth
            • Damage to Seedlings by Animals
            • Damage to Seedlings by Insects
            • Climate Change Effects on Oaks
        • Oak Regeneration Challenges
          • Evidence of Oak Regeneration Problems
          • Geographical Extent of Oak Regeneration Problems
          • Causes for Poor Oak Seedling Establishment
          • Oaks' Inability to Respond to Release
          • Site Moisture Effects on Oak Regeneration
          • Causes for Slow Juvenile Growth Rate
          • Historical Origin of Existing Oak Stands
        • Establishing Oak Regeneration
          • Management Implications of Acorn Production
          • Knowledge Gaps in Managing for Oak Regeneration
          • Oak Regeneration Potential
          • Site Preparation Treatments in Oak Forests
          • Natural Regeneration Methods for Oak
          • Artificial Regeneration of Oak
        • Managing Established Oak Stands
          • Thinnings and Oak Management
          • Release Operations and Oak Management
      • Silviculture of Yellow-Poplar Stands
        • Importance of Yellow-Poplar
        • Yellow-Poplar Silvics and Ecology
        • Site Quality and Yellow-Poplar Management
        • Establishing Yellow-Poplar Regeneration
        • Managing Established Yellow-Poplar Stands
      • The Silviculture of Degraded Hardwood Stands
        • Causes of Degraded Hardwood Stands
        • Solutions to Managing Degraded Stands
        • Management Alternatives for Degraded Stands
        • Rating Degraded Stands
        • A Checklist for Managing Degraded Stands
      • Timber Harvesting and Roads
        • Timber Harvesting
        • Forest Roads
    • Terrestrial Wildlife
      • Why are Wildlife and Wildlife Management Valued?
      • Wildlife Management
      • Imperiled Species
      • The Land Manager's Guide to the Birds of the South
      • The Land Manager's Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of the South
      • The Land Manager's Guide to the Mammals of the South
    • Aquatic Resource Management
      • Water Supply, Usage, and Flow Regulation
      • Water Quality
      • Conservation of Aquatic Biodiversity
      • Riparian Zone Management for Protection of Aquatic Resources
      • Aquatic-Based Recreation
    • Recreation
    • Nontimber Forest Products
      • Product Categories & Product Summaries
      • Historical Perspective
      • Market Overview
      • National and Regional Policies
      • Issues that Affect Sustainability
      • NTFP References
    • Intrinsic Ecosystem Values
      • Old-Growth
      • Wilderness and Roadless Areas
      • Biodiversity
      • Aesthetics
    • Management Tools
      • Site Quality Evaluation and Classification
      • Knowledge Management
      • Mathematical Models
      • Decision Support
  • Ecology
    • Disturbance and Succession
    • Biogeochemical Cycling
    • Aquatic Ecology
    • Species Ecology
  • Forest Health
    • Forest Insects
    • Nonnative Invasive Species
    • Air Quality
  • Social Science
    • Test Page
    • Play Page2
• Environmental Threats
  • Land
  • Air & Water
  • Fire
  • Pests/Biota
  • Case Studies
  • About Us
• So. Pine Beetle
• So. Fire Science
  • Fire Behavior
    • Overview
    • Fuels
      • Fuel Categories
      • Physical Fuel Properties
      • Chemical Fuel Properties
      • Fuel Moisture
      • Fuel Availability and Consumption
      • Flammability of Southern Plant Species
    • Fire Weather
      • Temperature
        • Temperature, Heat, and the Atmosphere
        • Horizontal Variations in Surface Air Temperatures
        • Seasonal and Diurnal Variations in Air Temperature
        • Lapse Rate and Inversions
      • Sources of Weather Information for Prescribed Burns
      • Atmospheric Moisture
        • Sources of Atmospheric Moisture
        • Evaporation and Vapor Pressure
        • Dew Point
        • Absolute Humidity
        • Relative Humidity
        • Measuring Humidity
      • Atmospheric Stability
        • Determining Atmospheric Stability
        • Lifting Processes
        • Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in Stability
        • Local Indicators of Stability
        • Subsidence
      • General Winds
        • Laminar Flow
        • Mechanical and Thermal Turbulence
        • Frontal Winds
        • Effects of Mountain Topography on Surface Winds
        • Winds Aloft
        • Measuring General Winds
      • Convective Winds
        • Land and Sea Breezes
        • Slope and Valley Winds
        • Whirlwinds
        • Thunderstorm Winds
      • Air Masses and Fronts
        • Formation and Modification of Air Masses
        • Air-Mass Weather
        • Fronts
          • Cold Fronts
          • Warm Fronts
          • Stationary Fronts
      • Clouds and Precipitation
        • Saturation Processes
        • Condensation, Sublimation, and Precipitation Processes
        • Kinds of Precipitation
        • Kinds of Clouds
      • Thunderstorms
        • Conditions Necessary for Thunderstorm Development
        • Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm Cell
        • Types of Thunderstorms
        • Lightning
        • Tornadoes
      • Fire Climate Regions Index
        • Topographical Features of North America
        • Maritime Influences in North America
        • Pressure and General Circulation Patterns in North America
        • Temperature Variations in North America
        • Precipitation Patterns in North America
        • Fire Climate Regions
    • Fire Behavior
      • Combustion and Heat Transfer
      • Fire Spread
      • Fire Growth
      • Extreme Fire Behavior
      • Flame Characteristics
      • Fire Behavior Prediction Systems
      • Fire Danger Rating Systems
  • Fire Effects
    • Air Quality
      • Air Quality Regulations and Fire
        • National Ambient Air Quality Standards
        • Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)
        • Visibility, Regional Haze, and the Clean Air Act
        • EPA Interim Air Quality Policy on Wildland and Prescribed Fires
        • Hazardous Air Pollutants
      • Magnitude of Fire Contributions to Air Quality Impact
        • Smoke from Wildland Fires
        • Smoke from Prescribed Fires
      • Characterization of Emissions from Fires
        • Components of Smoke
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Area Burned
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Preburn Fuel Characteristics
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Fire Behavior
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Combustion Stages
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Fuel Consumption
        • Predicting Fire Emissions: Emission Factors
        • Total Emissions, Source Strength, and Heat Release Rate
      • Transport, Dispersion, and Modeling of Fire Emissions
        • The Role of Heat Release in the Trajectory and Dispersion of Fire Emissions
        • Model Application
        • The Role of Plume Rise and Buoyancy in the Trajectory and Dispersion of Fire Emissions
        • The Role of Advection and Diffusion in the Trajectory and Dispersion of Fire Emissions
        • The Role of Scavenging in the Trajectory and Dispersion of Fire Emissions
        • The Role of Chemical Transformations in the Trajectory and Dispersion of Fire Emissions
        • Plume Models
        • Puff Models
        • Particle Models
        • Grid Models
      • Atmospheric and Plume Chemistry
        • Ozone Formation in Plumes
        • Factors Affecting Plume Chemistry
        • Emission Factors for Reactive Species
        • Particle Formation in Plumes
      • Estimating the Air Quality Impacts of Fire
        • Emission Inventories
        • Air Quality Monitoring
        • Source Apportionment
      • Smoke Impacts
        • Health Effects of Smoke
        • Welfare Effects of Smoke
          • Visibility
        • Economic and Social Consequences of Smoke
        • Smoke and Highway Safety
        • Climate Change and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fires
      • Research and Development
        • Established Research Framework
        • Emerging Research Needs
    • Water Quality
      • Fire Effects on Stream Nutrients
      • Fire Effects on Stream Sediments
      • Fire Effects on Watershed Hydrology
      • Thermal Effects of Fire on Streams
      • Fire and Riparian Zones
      • Fire and Wetlands
    • Soil
      • Overview
      • Soil Heating
      • Soil Physical Properties
      • Soil Organic Matter
      • Soil Nutrients
      • Soil Biota
      • Soil Erosion
      • Management Guidelines
    • Plants
      • Fire Autecology of Plants
    • Animals
      • Fire Effects on Fauna- Overview
      • Fire Effects on Invertebrates
        • Effects of Fire on Pollinating Insects
      • Fire Effects on Aquatic Fauna
        • Fire Effects on Periphyton
        • Fire Effects on Aquatic Macroinvertebrates
        • Fire Effects on Fish
      • Fire and Fauna: Management and Research Implications
      • Direct Effects of Fire and Immediate Animal Responses
      • Fire Effects on Animal Populations
        • Effects of Altered Fire Regimes on Animal Populations
        • Animal Influences on Postfire Habitat
      • Fire Effects on Communities
      • Fire Effects on Fauna at Landscape Scales
      • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Southeastern Forests
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Eastern Deciduous Forests
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Prairie Grassland
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Northern Forests
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Western Forests
        • Fire Effects on Wildlife Foods in Western Woodlands, Shrublands, and Grasslands
      • Fire Effects on Birds
        • Injury and Mortality in Birds
        • Fire Effects on Northern Bobwhites
        • Escape, Emigration, and Immigration in Birds
        • Fire Effects on Bird Populations
        • Bird Community Responses to Understory Fire Regimes
        • Bird Community Responses to Stand-Replacement Fires in Grasslands and Shrub-Grasslands
        • Bird Community Responses to Stand-replacement Fires in Shrublands
        • Bird Community Responses to Stand-Replacement Fires in Forests and Woodlands
        • Bird Community Responses to Mixed-Severity Fire Regimes
        • Table: Classification of Changes in Bird Abundance into Response Categories
      • Fire Effects on Mammals
        • Injury and Mortality in Mammals
        • Escape, Emigration, and Immigration in Mammals
        • Fire Effects on Mammal Populations
      • Fire Effects on Reptiles and Amphibians
        • Injury and Mortality in Reptiles and Amphibians
        • Reptile and Amphibian Emigration and Immigration
        • Fire Effects on Reptile and Amphibian Populations
    • Fire Severity
      • Residence Time
      • Depth of Burn
      • Crown Scorch
      • Composite Burn Index
  • Fire & People
    • Human Health Impacts of Fire
    • Recreation and Fire
    • Economic Impacts of Fire
    • Fire in the Wildland Urban Interface
    • Fire Management Policies
    • Fire Education Programs
    • A History of People and Fire in the South
    • Knowledge and Attitudes about Fire Among Southerners
    • The Aesthetics of Fire
  • Prescribed Fire
    • Uses of Prescribed Fire
      • Silvicultural Objectives
      • Hazardous Fuel Reduction
      • Ecological Maintenance
      • Manage Fire-dependent Species
      • Control Insects And Disease
      • Improve Wildlife Habitat
      • Range Management
      • Enhance Appearance
      • Improve Access
    • Weather and Fuel Considerations
      • Wind Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Relative Humidity Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Temperature Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Rainfall and Soil Moisture Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Airmass Stability and Atmospheric Dispersion Considerations
      • Fine-Fuel Moisture Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Topographical Considerations in Prescribed Burning
      • Sources of Weather Information
    • Firing Techniques
      • Backing Fires
      • Strip-Heading Fire
      • Flanking Fire
      • Point Source Fires
      • Aerial Ignition
      • Center and Circular (Ring) Firing
      • Pile and Windrow Burning
    • Planning and Conducting Prescribed Burns
      • Planning a Prescribed Burn
      • Preparing for a Prescribed Burn
      • Executing a Prescribed Burn
      • Evaluating a Prescribed Burn
      • Prescribed Burning Rules of Thumb
      • Red Flag Situations in Prescribed Burning
    • State Prescribed Burn Statutes
      • Alabama
      • Puerto Rico
      • South Carolina
      • Tennessee
      • Texas
      • Virgin Islands
      • Virginia
      • Arkansas
      • Florida
      • Georgia
      • Kentucky
      • Louisana
      • Mississippi
      • North Carolina
      • Oklahoma
    • Prescribed Fire and Public Relations
  • Smoke Management
    • The Need
    • Problem and Nuisance Smoke
      • Smoke as a Southern Problem
      • Problem Smoke: What is being done to Minimize the Problem?
    • Smoke Management Meteorology
      • Air Pressure and Smoke
      • Lapse Rates and Smoke
      • Atmospheric Stability and Smoke
      • Mixing Height and Smoke
      • Temperature Inversions and Smoke
      • Wind and Smoke
      • Atmospheric Moisture and Smoke
      • Weather Forecasts and Smoke Management
      • Climate and Smoke
    • Reducing and Redistributing Emissions
      • Techniques to Reduce the Amount of Smoke Emissions
      • Techniques to Redistribute Smoke Emissions
      • The Use and Effectiveness of Emission Reduction and Redistribution Techniques
    • Smoke Management Programs
    • Administration and Evaluation
  • Wildfire
    • Fire in Today's South
    • Wildfire Mitigation
      • Risk Assessment
      • Risk Reduction
      • Fire Prevention
    • Fire Control and Suppression
      • Wildland Firefighting Equipment
      • Mop-Up and Patrol at the End of Fire Control Operations
      • Communications during Fire Control and Suppression
      • Making Plans for Fire Suppression Activities
      • Organizing Fire Control Operations
      • Firefighter Safety
      • Initial Attack Operations on a Wildfire
      • Extended Attack, Project Fires, and Mega-Fires
      • Ground Control on Wildfires
      • Aerial Fire Control
      • Chemical Fire Control
      • Fire Control Tactics and Strategies
    • Wildland Fire Rehabilitation and Restoration
      • Postfire Rehabilitation
    • Fire Control History
      • The Buildup of the Fire Control Infrastructure
      • New Requirements for Fire Control in the Wildland Urban Interface in the 1990s
    • Current Fire Policy's Impact on Fire Control and Suppression In the South
    • Current Issues: Fire in the South's Urbanizing Landscape
    • Wildfire Occurence
  • Fire Ecology
    • Longleaf Pine
    • Shortleaf Pine
    • Pocosins
    • Pond Pine
    • Shrub bogs
    • Canebrakes
    • Florida Scrub
    • Loblolly Pine
    • Freshwater marshes
    • Melaleuca Swamps
    • The Everglades
    • Table Mountain Pine
    • Northern Hardwoods
    • Salt and Brackish Marshes
    • Isolated Herbaceous Wetlands
    • Xeric Oak-pine
    • Grassy and Heath Balds
    • Oak-hickory
    • Cypress Ponds
    • Hardwood Hammocks
    • Fire Regimes
    • Florida Dry Prairie
    • Oak Savannas
• So. Bioenergy
  • Understanding Bioenergy
    • Global Utilization of Forest Biomass
      • Availability of Biomass Across the Globe
      • Utilization of Forest Biomass
      • OECD Countries
      • European Union
      • Future Scenarios
    • Current Status of Biomass in the US
    • Environmental Benefits
    • Economic Benefits
    • Energy Benefits
    • Promoting Bioenergy
      • Market Formation
      • Biofuels
      • Challenges in Bioenergy
  • Southern Resources
    • The Southern U. S.
    • The Southern Forest
  • Management
    • Favorable Stand Attributes
    • Forest Management and Silviculture
      • Sustainable Forest Ecosystem Management
      • Forest Management Issues
      • Silvicultural Implications
      • Biomass Production By Forest Type
      • Integrating Bioenergy Harvesting
      • Designing Low-Impact Operations
  • Harvesting
    • Defining Biomass Feedstock Forms
    • Review of Harvesting Systems
    • Pre-Processing and Drying
    • Transportation and Delivery
    • Storage
    • Cost Factors Affecting Harvesting Biomass
    • SRWC Harvesting Systems
  • Utilization
    • Woody Biomass
      • Wood Composition
      • Properties of wood
      • Forest Residues
      • Wood-processing Residues
    • Bioenergy
      • Ethanol
      • Bio-Diesel
      • Methanol
    • Biomass Industrial Products
      • Intermediate and Specialty Chemicals
      • Bio-based Materials
    • Production Methods
      • Bio-chemical Processes
        • Aerobic Digestion-Composting
        • Fermentation of Lignocellulosic Biomass
        • Anaerobic Digestion
      • Thermochemical Conversion Processes
        • Black Liquor Gasification
        • Vitrification
        • Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU) Process
        • Fisher-Tropsh Process
        • Biomass Gasification
        • Combustion
        • Fast Pyrolysis
        • Lipid Extraction
        • Thermochemical Liquefaction
      • Fiber Composites Manufacturing
    • Worldwide Utilization
      • Fuel Consumption
      • Indian Case Study
      • China
      • Russia
      • Mali
      • Italy
      • Ukraine
    • Energy Units
  • Economics
    • Supply of Forest Biomass
    • Cost Competitiveness
    • Community Impacts
    • Policy Factors and Incentives
    • Landowner Economics
  • Sustainability
    • Framework for Achieving Sustainable Forest Management
    • Soil Values
    • Hydrologic Values
    • Biodiversity Values